Generating Ambivalence: Media Representations of Canadian Transplant Tourism
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26522/ssj.v10i2.1421Keywords:
transplant tourism, organ trade, postcolonialism, Canada, mediaAbstract
This article addresses transplant tourism as one facet of the international organ trade. It asks whether mainstream media portrayals of Canadian transplant tourist journeys convey messages supportive of stronger efforts to stop extra-territorial organ purchase. A postcolonial theoretical approach using Mary Louise Pratt’s study of travel writing is employed to conduct a discourse analysis of Canadian media and cultural representation from 1988 to 2015. The public learns that transplant tourism is “bad” but understandable, and either not our problem or a symptom of another problem. Three forms this message takes are: the broader organ trade is a distant and insurmountable problem; transplant tourists are innocent victims; and, resolution of a larger, national organ scarcity problem will end transplant tourism. I conclude that the media generates ambivalence towards the issue of transplant tourism. Reader attention is drawn away from health outcomes and human rights, especially of organ providers – reasons Canada might do more to stop transplant tourism – towards the challenges faced by transplant tourists, with the effect of eclipsing public discussion of whether and how to stop Canadians from buying organs in other countries.
References
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Columb, S. (2015). Beneath the organ trade: A critical analysis of the organ trafficking discourse. Crime, Law and Social Change, 63(1/2), 21-47.
Contreras, R. B. (2015). Qualitative data analysis with Atlas.ti:
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Inwood, D. (2010, August 17). Canada lags in number of organ donors; More donors here would cut wait times, curb transplant tourism, expert says. The Province, p. A9.
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Jimenez, M., & Bell, S. (2001, June 23). Organ trade: Anatomy of a deal: How a wealthy Canadian businessman bought a new kidney in a Manila slum Series: Transplant Tourism. National Post, p. B1.
Johnson, P. C. (2010). Writing liminal landscapes: The cosmopolitical gaze. Tourism Geographies, 12(4), 505-524.
Kelly, E. (2013). International organ trafficking crisis: Solutions addressing the heart of the matter. Boston College Law Review, 54(3), 1317-1349.
Kilgour, D., & Matas, D. (2010, December 7). Chinese transplant numbers don't add up. The Ottawa Citizen, p. A15.
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Lee, L. (Director/Writer). (2014). Human Harvest [Documentary Film]. Canada: Flying Cloud Productions.
Lowi, H. (2008, February 6). Putting a price tag on life Toronto Star, p. AA5. Retrieved from www.thestar.com/opinion/2008/02/06/putting_a_price_tag_on_life.html
Lundin, S. (2012). Organ economy: Organ trafficking in Moldova and Israel. Public Understanding of Science, 21(2), 226-241.
Markel, F. (2010, August 14). Donating begins at home. Globe and Mail, p. A14.
Markens, S. (2012). The global reproductive health market: U.S. media framings and public discourses about transnational surrogacy. Social Science & Medicine, 74(11), 1745-1753.
Martin, D. E., Van Assche, K., Domínguez-Gil, B., López-Fraga, M., Budiani-Saberi, D., Lavee, J., . . . Delmonico, F. L. (2015). Prevention of transnational transplant-related crimes: What more can be done? Transplantation, 100(8), 1776-1784.
Matas, D. (2009). Bloody harvest: Organ harvesting of Falun Gong practitioners in China. Niagara Falls, ON: Seraphim Editions.
Matas, D. (2014, November). Canadian remedies for organ transplant abuse in China. Presented to a forum at The National Archives, Ottawa, ON. Retrieved from http://endorganpillaging.org/canadian-remedies-for-organ-transplant-abuse-in-china/
Matas, D., & Trey, T. (2012). State organs: Transplant abuse in China. Woodstock, ON: Seraphim Editions.
Moniruzzaman, M. (2012). "Living cadavers" in Bangladesh: Bioviolence in the human organ bazaar. Medical Anthroplogy Quarterly, 26(1), 69-91.
Moniruzzaman, M. (2013). Parts and labor: The commodification of the human body. In A. Quayson & G. Daswani (Eds.), A companion to diaspora and transnationalism (pp. 455-472). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Paperny, D. (Director). (2003). Transplant tourism [Documentary Film] Canada: Paperny Films.
Participants in the International Summit On Transplant Tourism and Organ Trafficking. (2008). The declaration of Istanbul on organ trafficking and transplant tourism. Clinical Journal of The American Society of Nephrology, 3, 1227.
Prasad, G. V. R., Ananth, S., Palepu, S., Huang, M., Nash, M. M., & Zaltzman, J. S. (2016). Commercial kidney transplantation is an important risk factor in long-term kidney allograft survival. Kidney International, 89(5), 1119–1124.
Pratt, M. L. (1992/2008). Imperial eyes: Travel writing and transculturation (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
Priest, L. (2001, Jun 02). Ban trade in organs, critics urge. Globe and Mail. Retrieved from www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/ban-trade-in-organs-critics-urge/article4148846/
Priest, L. (2003, Apr 21). Organ transplant abroad: One person's ordeal. Globe and Mail. Retrieved from www.theglobeandmail.com/life/organ-transplant-abroad-one-persons-ordeal/article25282719/
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Rau, R. (Director/Writer). (2010). The Market [Documentary Film]. Canada: Storyline Entertainment.
Rose, D. A. (2009). Larry's kidney: Being the true story of how I found myself in China with my black sheep cousin and his mail-order bride, skirting the law to get him a transplant ... and save his life. New York: William Morrow Paperbacks
Scheper-Hughes, N. (1998). The new cannibalism. The New Internationalist, 300, 14-17.
Scheper-Hughes, N. (2000). The global traffic in human organs. Current Anthropology, 41(2), 191-224.
Scheper-Hughes, N. (2003). Keeping an eye on the global traffic in human organs. The Lancet, 361, 1645-1648.
Sharp, L. A. (2014). The transplant imaginary: Mechanical hearts, animal parts, and moral thinking in highly experimental science. Berkeley, CA: University of California.
Shimazono, Y. (2007). The state of the international organ trade; A provisional picture based on integration of available information. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 85, 955-962.
Skelton, C. (2007, February 1). 42 B.C. residents go to China for organ transplants. The Vancouver Sun, p. A5.
Snyder, J., Crooks, V., Johnston, R., & Kingsbury, P. (2013). Beyond sun, sand, and stitches: Assinging responsibility for the harms of medical tourism. Bioethics, 27(5), 233-242.
Somerville, M. (2008, August 13). At heart, it's slavery by another name. The Globe and Mail, p. A15.
Stone, K. (Director), Kay Rubacek (Producer) (2015). Hard to believe [Documentary Film]. USA: Swoop Films.
Talaga, T. (2013, August 28). Why did they steal this Chinese boy's eyes? Toronto Star, p. A3
Tan, E. L. (2007, September 27). Living donors risk poor health, experts say; But black market in kidneys, livers thrives in poorer countries. Toronto Star, p. L1. Retrieved from www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2007/09/27/living_donors_risk_poor_health_experts.html
Thakur, B. S. (2013, March 23). Kidney racket: Mastermind doctors get 7-yr jail. Hindustan Times. Retrieved from http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/kidney-racket-mastermind-doctors-get-7-yr-jail/story-OUEAL33HijQabKVnlhATsK.html
Turnbull, B. (2013, Apr 27). Organ trade cuts both ways. Toronto Star, p. L1.
Turner, C., Dewey-Hagborg, H., Moniruzzaman, M., & Ruxton, J. (2015, October). Spare Parts. Exhibition at the Consuming Intimacies Symposium, St. Catharines, ON.
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van Dijk, T. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 4(2), 249-283.
Wattie, C. (2008, February 4). "Dr. Horror" hunt leads to Brampton; Amit Kumar. National Post, p. A6.
Wright, L., Zaltzman, J. S., Gill, J., & Prasad, G. V. (2013). Kidney transplant tourism: Cases from Canada. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 16(4), 921-924.
Yakupoglu, Y. K., Ozden, E., Dilek, M., Demirbas, A., Adibelli, Z., Sarikaya, S., & Akpolat, T. (2010). Transplantation tourism: High risk for the recipients. Clinical Transplantation, 24(6), 835-838.
Zurrer, R., & Rinaldo, S. (Producer). (2007). A new life. [W-FIVE: Television Series Episode]. McIntyre Media Inc., CTV Television Network.
Anderssen, E. (2011, March 4). Can paying for a new kidney save organ donation? Globe and Mail. Retrieved from www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/can-paying-for-a-new-kidney-save-organ-donation/article583107/?page=all
Bagheri, A., & Delmonico, F. (2013). Global initiatives to tackle organ trafficking and transplant tourism. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 16(4), 887-895.
Bhalla, R., & Takooshian, H. (2011). Public attitudes toward the ethics of organ donation. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 20(1/2), 52-74.
Bienstock, R. E. (Director) (2013). Tales from the organ trade [Documentary Film]. Canada/USA: An Associated Producers production with HBO Documentary Films, Shaw Media & Canal D.
Bindel, J. (2013, July 6). Organ trafficking a booming trade: Organized criminals make a fortune from clinics that will buy a heart, kidney and pancreas for wealthy patients. The Gazette, p. A25.
Boy's eyes gouged out in horror attack. (2013, August 28). The Windsor Star, p. D4.
Brassolotto, J., & Daly, T. (2016). Scarcity discourses and their impacts on renal care policy, practices, and everyday experiences in rural British Columbia. Social Science & Medicine, 152, 138-146.
Budiani-Saberi, D., & Columb, S. (2013). A human rights approach to human trafficking for organ removal. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 16(4), 897-914.
Budiani-Saberi, D. A., & Delmonico, F. L. (2008). Organ trafficking and transplant tourism: A commentary on the global realities. American Journal of Transplantation, 8(5), 925-929.
Canadians desperate for transplants turn to illegal organ trade. (2013, June 1). CTVNews.ca. Retrieved from www.ctvnews.ca/health/canadians-desperate-for-transplants-turn-to-illegal-organ-trade-1.1307227
Chung, A. (2008, February 10). Who owns your body? Toronto Star. Retrieved from www.thestar.com/news/2008/02/10/who_owns_your_body.html
Cohen, I. G. (2013). Transplant tourism: The ethics and regulation of international markets for organs. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 41(1), 269-285.
Columb, S. (2015). Beneath the organ trade: A critical analysis of the organ trafficking discourse. Crime, Law and Social Change, 63(1/2), 21-47.
Contreras, R. B. (2015). Qualitative data analysis with Atlas.ti:
An iterative and integrated process. Corvallis, OR: Atlas.ti.
Curb trade in human organs (2012, Jan 23). Curb trade in human organs. Toronto Star, p. A12
Cutting out transplant tourism. (2010, August 13). Globe and Mail, p. A14.
Delmonico, F. L. (2011). Transplant tourism - An update regarding the realities. National Review of Nephrology, 7, 248-250.
Entman, R. (1993). Framing: Toward a clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 34, 51-58.
Five charged after teenager sells kidney to buy iPhone, iPad. (2012, April 7). Reuters. Retrieved from www.reuters.com/article/us-china-kidney-idUSBRE8350B020120406
Garrison, W. A. (1988). The 1987 distinguished lecture: A constructionist approach to mass media and public opinion. Symbolic Interaction, 11(2), 161-174.
Garwood, P. (2007). Dilemma over live-donor transplantion. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 85(1), 5-6.
Gerlach, N., Hamilton, S. N., Sullivan, R., & Walton, P. (Eds.). (2011). Becoming biosubjects: Bodies. systems. technologies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Gill, J. S., Goldberg, A., Prasad, G. V. R., Fortin, M.-C., Hansen, T.-B., Levin, A., . . . Caulfield, T. (2010). Policy statement of Canadian Society of Transplantation and Canadian Society of Nephrology on organ trafficking and transplant tourism. Transplantation, 90(8), 817-820.
Gutmann, E. (2014). The slaughter: Mass killings, organ harvesting, and China's secret solution to its dissident problem. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
Harrison, T. (1999). Globalization and the trade in human body parts. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 36, 21-35.
Harvey, D. (1997). Justice, nature and the geography of difference. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
House of Commons Parliament of Canada. (2008). Bill C-500 An Act to amend the Criminal Code (Trafficking and transplanting human organs and other body parts). First Reading, February 5.
Immigration agents aim to prevent sales of organs. (2006, Nov 21). Times - Colonist, p. A6.
Inwood, D. (2010, August 17). Canada lags in number of organ donors; More donors here would cut wait times, curb transplant tourism, expert says. The Province, p. A9.
Jameson, J., & Entman, R. (2005). The role of journalism in democratic conflict management: Narrating the New York budget crisis after 9/11. Sage Public Administration Abstracts, 32(1), 0063.
Jensen, S. (Director). (2004). Organs for Sale [Documentary Film]. Denmark: Dansk Television.
Jimenez, M. (2004, January 31). Family seeking kidney "gambled and won.". Globe and Mail, p. A6.
Jimenez, M., & Bell, S. (2001, June 23). Organ trade: Anatomy of a deal: How a wealthy Canadian businessman bought a new kidney in a Manila slum Series: Transplant Tourism. National Post, p. B1.
Johnson, P. C. (2010). Writing liminal landscapes: The cosmopolitical gaze. Tourism Geographies, 12(4), 505-524.
Kelly, E. (2013). International organ trafficking crisis: Solutions addressing the heart of the matter. Boston College Law Review, 54(3), 1317-1349.
Kilgour, D., & Matas, D. (2010, December 7). Chinese transplant numbers don't add up. The Ottawa Citizen, p. A15.
Kopytoff, I. (1986). The cultural biography of things: Commoditization as process. In A. Appadurai (Ed.), The social life of things: Commodities in cultural perspective (pp. 64-94). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kosovo organ traffickers jailed. (2013, April 30). The Windsor Star, p. B2.
Laogai Research Foundation. (2011). Death penalty and organ harvesting. Retrieved from http://laogai.org
Lavee, J., Ashkenazi, T., Stoler, A., Cohen, J., & Beyar, R. (2013). Preliminary marked increase in the national organ donation rate in Israel following implementation of a new organ transplantation law. American Journal of Transplantation, 13(3), 780-785.
Lee, L. (Director/Writer). (2014). Human Harvest [Documentary Film]. Canada: Flying Cloud Productions.
Lowi, H. (2008, February 6). Putting a price tag on life Toronto Star, p. AA5. Retrieved from www.thestar.com/opinion/2008/02/06/putting_a_price_tag_on_life.html
Lundin, S. (2012). Organ economy: Organ trafficking in Moldova and Israel. Public Understanding of Science, 21(2), 226-241.
Markel, F. (2010, August 14). Donating begins at home. Globe and Mail, p. A14.
Markens, S. (2012). The global reproductive health market: U.S. media framings and public discourses about transnational surrogacy. Social Science & Medicine, 74(11), 1745-1753.
Martin, D. E., Van Assche, K., Domínguez-Gil, B., López-Fraga, M., Budiani-Saberi, D., Lavee, J., . . . Delmonico, F. L. (2015). Prevention of transnational transplant-related crimes: What more can be done? Transplantation, 100(8), 1776-1784.
Matas, D. (2009). Bloody harvest: Organ harvesting of Falun Gong practitioners in China. Niagara Falls, ON: Seraphim Editions.
Matas, D. (2014, November). Canadian remedies for organ transplant abuse in China. Presented to a forum at The National Archives, Ottawa, ON. Retrieved from http://endorganpillaging.org/canadian-remedies-for-organ-transplant-abuse-in-china/
Matas, D., & Trey, T. (2012). State organs: Transplant abuse in China. Woodstock, ON: Seraphim Editions.
Moniruzzaman, M. (2012). "Living cadavers" in Bangladesh: Bioviolence in the human organ bazaar. Medical Anthroplogy Quarterly, 26(1), 69-91.
Moniruzzaman, M. (2013). Parts and labor: The commodification of the human body. In A. Quayson & G. Daswani (Eds.), A companion to diaspora and transnationalism (pp. 455-472). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Paperny, D. (Director). (2003). Transplant tourism [Documentary Film] Canada: Paperny Films.
Participants in the International Summit On Transplant Tourism and Organ Trafficking. (2008). The declaration of Istanbul on organ trafficking and transplant tourism. Clinical Journal of The American Society of Nephrology, 3, 1227.
Prasad, G. V. R., Ananth, S., Palepu, S., Huang, M., Nash, M. M., & Zaltzman, J. S. (2016). Commercial kidney transplantation is an important risk factor in long-term kidney allograft survival. Kidney International, 89(5), 1119–1124.
Pratt, M. L. (1992/2008). Imperial eyes: Travel writing and transculturation (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
Priest, L. (2001, Jun 02). Ban trade in organs, critics urge. Globe and Mail. Retrieved from www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/ban-trade-in-organs-critics-urge/article4148846/
Priest, L. (2003, Apr 21). Organ transplant abroad: One person's ordeal. Globe and Mail. Retrieved from www.theglobeandmail.com/life/organ-transplant-abroad-one-persons-ordeal/article25282719/
Rainhorn, J.-D., & Boudamoussi, S. E. (Eds.). (2015). New cannibal markets: Globalization and commodification of the human body. Paris: Maison des Sciences de l'Homme
Rau, R. (Director/Writer). (2010). The Market [Documentary Film]. Canada: Storyline Entertainment.
Rose, D. A. (2009). Larry's kidney: Being the true story of how I found myself in China with my black sheep cousin and his mail-order bride, skirting the law to get him a transplant ... and save his life. New York: William Morrow Paperbacks
Scheper-Hughes, N. (1998). The new cannibalism. The New Internationalist, 300, 14-17.
Scheper-Hughes, N. (2000). The global traffic in human organs. Current Anthropology, 41(2), 191-224.
Scheper-Hughes, N. (2003). Keeping an eye on the global traffic in human organs. The Lancet, 361, 1645-1648.
Sharp, L. A. (2014). The transplant imaginary: Mechanical hearts, animal parts, and moral thinking in highly experimental science. Berkeley, CA: University of California.
Shimazono, Y. (2007). The state of the international organ trade; A provisional picture based on integration of available information. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 85, 955-962.
Skelton, C. (2007, February 1). 42 B.C. residents go to China for organ transplants. The Vancouver Sun, p. A5.
Snyder, J., Crooks, V., Johnston, R., & Kingsbury, P. (2013). Beyond sun, sand, and stitches: Assinging responsibility for the harms of medical tourism. Bioethics, 27(5), 233-242.
Somerville, M. (2008, August 13). At heart, it's slavery by another name. The Globe and Mail, p. A15.
Stone, K. (Director), Kay Rubacek (Producer) (2015). Hard to believe [Documentary Film]. USA: Swoop Films.
Talaga, T. (2013, August 28). Why did they steal this Chinese boy's eyes? Toronto Star, p. A3
Tan, E. L. (2007, September 27). Living donors risk poor health, experts say; But black market in kidneys, livers thrives in poorer countries. Toronto Star, p. L1. Retrieved from www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2007/09/27/living_donors_risk_poor_health_experts.html
Thakur, B. S. (2013, March 23). Kidney racket: Mastermind doctors get 7-yr jail. Hindustan Times. Retrieved from http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/kidney-racket-mastermind-doctors-get-7-yr-jail/story-OUEAL33HijQabKVnlhATsK.html
Turnbull, B. (2013, Apr 27). Organ trade cuts both ways. Toronto Star, p. L1.
Turner, C., Dewey-Hagborg, H., Moniruzzaman, M., & Ruxton, J. (2015, October). Spare Parts. Exhibition at the Consuming Intimacies Symposium, St. Catharines, ON.
Turner, C., Wall, S., Butler, J., Ruxton, J., Pires, P., Milman, D., . . . Remborg, S. (2007). Rough Cut. Toronto: InterAccess Electronic Media Art Center.
United States. (2016). House Resolution 343 Expressing concern regarding persistent and credible reports of systematic, state-sanctioned organ harvesting from non-consenting prisoners of con- science in the People’s Republic of China, including from large numbers of Falun Gong practitioners and members of other religious and ethnic minority groups. (113th Congress (2013-2014) ed.). United States of America: Foreign Affairs Committee, Africa, Global Health, Global Human Rights, and International Organizations Sub-Committee.
van Dijk, T. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 4(2), 249-283.
Wattie, C. (2008, February 4). "Dr. Horror" hunt leads to Brampton; Amit Kumar. National Post, p. A6.
Wright, L., Zaltzman, J. S., Gill, J., & Prasad, G. V. (2013). Kidney transplant tourism: Cases from Canada. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 16(4), 921-924.
Yakupoglu, Y. K., Ozden, E., Dilek, M., Demirbas, A., Adibelli, Z., Sarikaya, S., & Akpolat, T. (2010). Transplantation tourism: High risk for the recipients. Clinical Transplantation, 24(6), 835-838.
Zurrer, R., & Rinaldo, S. (Producer). (2007). A new life. [W-FIVE: Television Series Episode]. McIntyre Media Inc., CTV Television Network.
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2016-12-19
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Consuming Intimacies: Bodies, Labour, Care, and Social Justice
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